PSGB Winter Meeting

1st December 2004

People, Primates and Conservation

Meeting rooms, Zoological Society of London, London.

Organised by: Kate Hill, Oxford Brookes University, (cmhill@brookes.ac.uk) & Caroline Ross, Roehampton University (c.ross@roehampton.ac.uk)

Programme

9:30 Registration

9:50 Introduction

10:00 Phyllis Lee, University of Cambridge: Who wins? Human - primate conflict in the context of conservation, development and gender

10:30 Nancy Priston, University of Cambridge: Cheeky monkeys: Human-wildlife conflict in South East Sulawesi

11:00 Coffee

11:30 2008 International Primatogical Society meeting - report by Paul Honess

11:35 John Fa, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Jersey: Prime meat or primates? - The impact of bushmeat trade on primates in African moist forests

12:05 Osman Hill Lecture by Carel van Schaik, University of Zürich: Correlated evolution between cognitive and cultural abilities

13:00 AGM & lunch

14:30 Francine Madden, Consultant in Human-wildlife conflict: A Multi-Disciplinary Perspective On The Prevention And Mitigation Of Human-Mountain Gorilla Conflict In Southwest Uganda

15:00 Garry Marvin, Roehampton University: Alarms, Skirmishes, Battles and Warfare: Human-Wildlife Conflicts

15:30 Tea

16:00 K.A.I. Nekaris(1) and Helga Schulze(2), (1) Oxford Brookes University, (2) Ruhr Universität Bochum: Historical and Recent Developments of Human-Loris Relations in South and Southeast Asia

16:00 Anna TC Feistner(1) and Kate Hill(2) (1) AFP Conservation Support, (2) Oxford Brookes University Human-wildlife conflict – primates in perspective

17:00 Closing remarks followed by Poster Session and Wisepress wine reception

Registration fees: Student Members: £10; Student Non-Members: £15; Members: £15; Non-Members: £30 All registration at the door on the day of the conference, non-members may join on the door and get the reduced registration fee. The meeting rooms are on opposite side of the Road to the Main Zoo entrance - the map on the Institute of Zoology web page (http://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/ioz/location.htm) shows how to get there - marked as 'Institute of Zoology Nuffield Building and Meeting Rooms"

ABSTRACTS FOR PSGB WINTER MEETING 2004

OSMAN HILL LECTURE

Correlated evolution between cognitive and cultural abilities

Carel van Schaik, Anthropologisches Institut & Museum University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 CH Switzerland

Primates are brainy mammals, great apes are brainy primates and humans are brainy great apes. Why? Previous attempts have focused on the benefits, but variable costs may also be important. Across mammals (and birds) we see evolutionary correlations between life history and brain size, suggesting that taxa with fast-paced life history cannot afford to build the infrastructure needed to support advanced cognitive skills. At a more proximate level, larger-brained taxa have slower development than similar-sited smaller-brained ones, allowing for the learning of more complex behavioural skills. Slow development and extensive learning are also accompanied by increased reliance on social learning, a finding easily explained on theoretical grounds. Social learning will of course produce cultural variation, which is especially striking if some of it is also oblique or horizontal. I discuss the evidence for cultural variation in nature, especially among great apes. As expected, this variation is found at multiple levels, but the stronger social tolerance the more it will create larger-scale geographic patterns. I then present a simple model that captures the cultural process, and conclude that we should expect animals with slow life history, if they can show gregariousness, not only to become intelligent but also to become cultural. This prediction, however, remains to be tested.

PEOPLE, PRIMATES AND CONSERVATION

Prime meat or primates? - The impact of bushmeat trade on primates in African moist forests

John E. Fa, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Les Augres Manor (john.fa@durrell.org)

The loss of tropical forest wildlife through the bushmeat trade is an even greater threat than deforestation. Most of the wild meat used for human consumption is derived from mammals, and a large proportion of this from primates. In moist forests in Africa, all primates are hunted for their meat. Endangered primate species, other than the great apes, are under increasing threat because of hunting. Resolution of this problem is complex, because of the linkages between socio-economics, food security and poverty issues that lead consumers and hunters, to depend on the hunted species. In this paper, I will review patterns of primate harvests in tropical moist forests in Africa from published and new field studies, and estimate numbers and biomass of these animals harvested each year. I will use these data to assess sustainability and predict extinction trends for the more vulnerable species. Recommendations for the conservation of primate species in African moist forests will be put forward in the context of human and wildlife needs.

Who wins? Human - primate conflict in the context of conservation, development and gender

Phyllis Lee, Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge (pcl1@cam.ac.uk)

When non-human primates come into conflict with human populations, conflict resolution is generally at the expense of the non-humans, with benefits for humans. If this was not the case, then there would be little need for conservation initiatives to protect non-human primate species. There are a number of questions that can be asked about the contexts of conflict, and others that focus on outcomes and applications of conservation projects. One mechanism for quantifying conflict is to explore how the humans "feel" about their primate neighbours; what are the perceptions of the nature of problems, of the causes and outcomes of conflict; and how do perceptions and attitudes influence tolerance, promote conservation, or simply result in the local extinction of the non-humans. Studies of attitudes have become widespread in recent conservation initiatives, but in the relatively few studies that have mapped perceptions onto conflict contexts, a general miss-match occurs. While there is seldom any question as to whether or not conflict occurs, primates can take the "blame" out of proportion to the economic or social costs that they impose through crop-raiding, stealing of human objects or food, or the nuisance of their presence. Being lively, visible, and highly strategic (in other words, like humans), they can become perceptual scapegoats for all losses. A further issue is that human attitudes are strongly influenced by the individual's sense of inclusion or empowerment. Community conservation programmes work with an assumption of "community" - this may not reflect the flow of power, wealth and influence, and thus can translate into top-down actions that have little relevance to disenfranchised groups, specifically those with less education and women. If conservation with development is to succeed, especially in contexts where one of the species of conservation concern is a primate, then several actions would be beneficial: awareness and responsiveness to gender as a form of social exclusion or non-engagement with conservation priorities; establishing financial mechanisms that are self-sustaining rather than limited to some period defined by a "project"; and ensuring that inclusion rather than exclusivity operates within a "community" context.

A multi-disciplinary perspective on the prevention and mitigation of human-mountain gorilla conflict in Southwest Uganda

Francine Madden, Consultant in Human-Wildlife Conflict, Washington, DC, USA (francine_madden@hotmail.com)

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda) is a small, forested park surrounded by a densely human-occupied and cultivated landscape. Human- mountain gorilla conflict has dramatically increased in recent years with costs incurred to both human and ape species, as well as to the natural resources upon which both depend. Crop raiding, personal injury due to attacks, disruption of social movement in the village when a marauding gorilla is nearby, and perceived inaction by conservation and government authorities to address the conflict have caused a marked decrease in tolerance of gorillas, an increase in local retaliation against gorillas and the park, as well as opposition to conservation initiatives and distrust of park staff, conservation workers and the government. Mountain gorillas have contracted diseases from local people and are continuously vulnerable to local and outside poachers. Through a consultative process, the author identified key needs and gaps that cause the conflict and designed a program to prevent and mitigate the conflict. These included the re-creating of communication and management systems aimed to reduce the social, as well as physical, conflict; developing of tools and techniques to minimize the conflict; addressing geographic conditions that lead to conflict, devising national policy that supports effective action by stakeholders; and developing practical education programs that aim to reduce fear and minimize the health risks to people and gorillas. Using both social science perspectives imbedded in biological wisdom and synthesizing them in an integrated approach proved the only reasonable means to achieving a mitigation program that would address the social, cultural, economic, biological, geographic, political and legal aspects of this complex conservation challenge.

Alarms, Skirmishes, Battles and Warfare: Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Garry Marvin, School of Business, Social Sciences & Computing, Roehampton University (g.marvin@Roehampton.ac.uk)

In this paper I consider issues connected with human-wildlife conflicts from the perspectives of social/cultural anthropology. Much of the attention given to such conflicts has been concerned with ecological, environmental and agricultural issues and the supposed damage committed by what are often labelled ‘pest species.' Such attention has come from natural scientists and has been focused on the ‘biological' animal - a creature often very different from the same animal in cultural perspective. I will argue that it is impossible to fully understand the nature of these conflicts without paying close attention to how different animals are differently configured in different cosmologies. Here I will adopt a social/cultural constructivist stance to explore how animals are imaginatively constructed and classified and the symbolic and moral status of animals. I will attempt to show how such constructions are as powerful in terms of generating active responses to animals as are the physically present animals themselves.

Historical and recent developments of human-loris relations in South and Southeast Asia

K.A.I. Nekaris(1) & Helga Schulze(2), (1) School of Social Sciences and Law, Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Oxford Brookes University; (anekaris@brookes.ac.uk); (2) Ruhr Universität Bochum, Department of Neuroanatomie (helga.schulze@cityweb.de)

The slow, slender and pygmy lorises of south and southeast Asia have been described by some as the ‘forgotten primates.' Indeed, nearly all taxa are listed as Data Deficient in the IUCN Red List. Six taxa are now widely recognised, but most reintroduction and rehabilitation programmes consider only three of these. This can have devastating effects as several recent studies have shown that lorises are the most abundant animals found for sale in south Asian animal markets, and rescue centres and airport customs consistently document the confiscation of more than one hundred animals per month. In this paper, we review current knowledge of loris and human relations in south and southeast Asia. We first examine it from an historical perspective, considering the uses of these animals in traditional medicines, and the eradication of them due to traditional beliefs. We review current knowledge of the pet trade, and consider the negative aspects of keeping lorises as pets, considering especially their toxic bites. We discuss other causes of direct devastation to loris populations including non-continuous crossings over roads in their habitat, electrocution and the effects of non-natural light on their activity rhythms and insect food sources. Finally, we consider the benefits of lorises to human populations, focussing in particular on the tendency for lorises to consume pests that endanger farmers' crops. We discuss the importance of conservation education, including dissemination of a taxonomic identification key to rescue centres, and detailed ecological studies of wild populations to alleviate the effect of trade on wild loris populations.

Cheeky monkeys: Human-wildlife conflict in South East Sulawesi

Nancy Priston, Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge (necp2@cam.ac.uk)

This study assesses the degree to which the booted Sulawesi macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens) poses a threat to farmers' livelihoods, and in turn, how this affects farmers' perceptions of a threatened species. Through interviews with local farmers, farm surveys, focal-farm watches and troop follows, the impact of raiding by primates on subsistence farmers in Buton, South-east Sulawesi, was investigated. Results from an exclosure plot trial showed that pigs (Sus celebensis) caused twice as much crop-damage as monkeys. Farmers' perceptions of damage and measures of monkey damage were found to correlate positively, though weakly. Those farmers experiencing low levels of crop-damage were less accurate at estimating damage, whereas those experiencing medium or high levels of damage were more accurate and even underestimated it. Whilst measured damage was a function of monkey behaviour with respect to distance from forest refuges, it appeared that perceptions of damage and attitudes towards the monkeys were more likely to be associated with human activities, such as access to and from villages. Whilst monkeys tended to damage areas closest to the farm edge, pigs, once within a farm, caused damage to the entire plot. Crop type grown, distance to forest, number of surrounding farms and presence of a road near the farm were also predictors of monkey damage. Possible deterrent methods have also been examined and educational material produced for local schools. Human attitudes directly affect the conservation of this sub-species. This project initially identifies these attitudes and ultimately aims to create a suitable management strategy for these primates.

POSTER PRESENTATIONS

Oil palms and orang-utans: Land-use conflict between the palm oil industry and the Bornean orang-utan

Helen Buckland, Department of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences and Law, Oxford Brookes University (helen@unblue.co.uk)

This research examines land-use conflict between the palm oil industry and the Bornean orang-utan. Since the 1960s oil palm has been one of the fastest growing sub-sectors of the Indonesian economy. While this growth has conferred important economic benefits, it has posed an increasing threat to Indonesia's natural forest cover. Unless forest allocation policies fundamentally alter, expansion in the oil palm sub-sector will pose a significant threat to Indonesia's biodiversity. Due to highly suitable moist tropical conditions, Indonesian Borneo is a primary exporter of palm oil. As worldwide demand increases, the amount of tropical forest destroyed to create plantations is escalating, threatening the country's biodiversity, including rare and endemic species such as the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus). The rapid expansion of these plantations has been crucial to the massive reduction and fragmentation of the orang-utans' habitat. To address this issue, I used a Geographical Information System to conduct a predictive analysis of likely future directions of palm oil plantation expansion, combined with up-to-date orang-utan distribution maps to identify populations of orang-utans whose habitat is at most immediate risk of destruction, fragmentation or degradation. Information about the ecology and habitat requirements of the Bornean orang-utan has been integrated to ascertain whether remaining habitat patches are likely to support viable populations. This information has been assimilated into recommendations for potential relocation sites, or expansion of protected areas to encompass critical habitats that are not currently protected and are under direct threat of clearance for the expansion of new plantations. The identification of alternative planting sites for palm oil which would result in less detrimental outcomes for the orang-utans is discussed.

Survey of Hylobates agilis albibarbis in unprotected primary peat swamp forest: Sebangau Catchment Area, Central Kalimantan.

Cara Buckley, Department of Anthropology, School of Social Science and Law, Oxford Brookes University

Virtually no data is available on gibbons that inhabit peat swamp forest. The aim of this study was to survey a population of Hylobates agilis albibarbis at Setia Alam Field Station. Setia Alam is located within the Sebangau Ecosystem, Central Kalimantan, an area of over seven thousand square kilometres of unprotected primary peat swamp forest. The study was conducted from 28 June to 27 July 2004 using auditory sampling methods. Five sample areas were selected and each was surveyed for four consecutive days by three teams of researchers stationed a measured distance apart at designated listening posts. Researchers recorded compass bearings of, and estimated distances to, singing groups. Nineteen groups were located. Population density estimates yielded figures of 2.2 groups per square kilometre or 7.4 individuals per square kilometre. Sightings occurring either at the listening posts or obtained by tracking in on calling groups yielded a mean group size of 3.4 individuals. Extrapolation of results indicates a gibbon population in the region of 5700 individuals within one of the three major habitat subtypes: mixed swamp forest. Anthropogenic disturbance continues to threaten the fauna of the Sebangau region. It is hoped that these results will contribute to ongoing efforts to obtain protected status for the Sebangau region.

Gibbons and humans: Working with communities to conserve the small apes.

Susan M. Cheyne(1) & Aurelién Brulé(2), (1) Wildlife Research Group, Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge (Susan.Cheyne@cantab.gold.net); (2) Kalaweit Gibbon Rehabilitation Project, Kalaweit Care Centre, Jalan Pinus No. 14, Palangka Raya, Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia.

The illegal pet trade is a big problem for gibbons. Infant gibbons can fetch anything from US$10-500 on the black-market. This represents a huge amount of money for the average Indonesian family, even if the cost of a bullet and gun are accounted for. Trade in highly-endangered gibbons still goes on, despite there being legislation against hunting throughout the gibbons' range and this is not the only problem facing gibbons. Logging and the permanent conversion of the forest to plantation result in the loss and fragmentation of the habitat. Despite this rather bleak outlook, conservation NGO's working with local communities are having an impact. I will present information from a gibbon rehabilitation project in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The Kalaweit Project is rescuing, rehabilitating, and releasing gibbons as well as protecting natural habitat, all through invaluable assistance from local communities. In addition, I will give examples of how the project has provided alternative sources of income for people who co-exist with gibbons. Through visiting researchers the staff learn data collection techniques and by presenting the findings of the research to local communities, the project fosters greater understanding of the need for conservation of the forest and the wildlife. The situation is far from perfect, as not all local communities will be willing to work with conservation NGO's. Grass-roots community conservation must work in conjunction with top-down action from forestry departments and the government.

The release and study of the process of re-adaptation to the natural environment of a group of confiscated white-fronted capuchin monkeys (Cebus albifrons versicolor) in Colombia.

Angela Maldonado, Department of Anthropology, School of Social Science and Law, Oxford Brookes University (selva.amazonica@lycos.com).

The pet trade, hunting, biomedical research and deforestation have all had a diminishing effect on wild populations of some primate species. The environmental authorities have implemented the practice of confiscating these animals in an attempt to control the trade in wildlife. The IUCN guidelines for the disposition of confiscated animals, state that when deciding on their fate, humane treatment and the conservation and welfare of existing wild populations should be ensured. The three main options for disposition are: maintenance in captivity, return to the wild and euthanasia. This short-term study has uncovered evidence which suggests that for some primate species, such as Cebus, return to the wild is a viable option for their disposition, as their variability and adaptability in foraging strategies and behaviour make them suitable candidates for release. A group of five confiscated white-fronted capuchins were released in the middle Magdalena, Colombia. Activity budgets, intra-specific and inter-specific interactions were recorded in order to assess their re-adaptation and survival in the wild. One year after release, four of the five individuals were still alive and displaying the socio-ecological patterns present in their wild counterparts. This indicates that reinforcement of wild populations is a viable alternative for the disposition of primates which meet the necessary requirements for release, and although this option is time consuming and expensive in comparison to euthanasia it is a far more ethical option, if the release process has beneficial implications for conservation, such as developing public awareness.

Comparison of macaque human interactions at two different tourist sites- The Rock of Gibraltar (Macaca sylvanus), and Alagar Temple, India (Macaca radiata)

Rachel Miller & K.A.I. Nekaris, Department of Anthropology, School of Social Science and Law, Oxford Brookes University (guernseygirl100@hotmail.com)

Macaques have become more commensal than any other primate taxa, and ever-increasing numbers interact directly with humans. This study observed two macaque groups that interact with humans as a result of provisioning, carried out for religious, tourist or aesthetic reasons. The behaviour and level and type of human interaction that occurred between humans and bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) at Alagar temple in southern India, and barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Ape's Den on Gibraltar were assessed. Observations were carried out in India during April and May 2004 for 14 days and during June 2004 for 10 days on Gibraltar. All occurrences sampling of human-macaque interactions and focal sampling of macaque behaviour were carried out. Activity budgets showed both groups spent significantly more time on resting and locomotor behaviours. Adult male macaques, involved in 67% of interactions, dominated human-macaque interactions at Alagar Temple. At Ape's Den immatures dominated interactions being the primary initiator during 35% of interactions. Food was involved in 80% of interactions at Alagar Temple and 73% at Ape's Den. Proportions of aggression within the social groups were only 6% at Alagar and 7% at Ape's Den. The level of aggression displayed during human-macaque interactions was 7% at Ape's Den; macaque aggression increased to 70% at Alagar during human interaction. Increased human-macaque interactions can lead to unhealthy, aggressive monkeys who become pests and may begin to pillage and beg for food, causing disturbances for humans and unsettling the natural behavioural ecology of the monkeys.

Modelling distributions for Colombian spider monkeys (Ateles spp.) to find priority areas for conservation

Alba Lucia Morales-Jimenez(1), Anna Nekaris(1), John Lee(2), Stewart Thompson(2), (1) Department of Anthropology, School of Social Science and Law, Oxford Brookes University (albalu@hotmail.com); (2) Spatial Ecology and Landuse Unit, Oxford Brookes University

Colombian spider monkeys are under high human pressures resulting in the designation of one Critically Endangered (Ateles hybridus), one Endangered (Ateles fusciceps) and one Vulnerable (Ateles belzebuth) species. Knowledge of the historical and current distribution of these species, and identification of threats, are critical in order to establish priorities and potential areas for conservation and research. The objective of this research was to model the distribution of genus Ateles in Colombia and to find priority areas for conservation. I used locality data obtained from museum specimens, bibliographic research and I analysed questionnaires returned by researchers that have worked in Colombia. I used climatic, topographic and vegetation data for this project, processing these data in a geographic information system and applying genetic algorithms for rule-set prediction (GARP) to model the distribution of the three species. I applied Gap analysis in order to find those areas important in the conservation of each species. At least 90% of the preliminary models were significantly non random for the three species. Only 18.8% of the potential distribution remains for Ateles hybidus and at least 56.9% and 59.5% for A. fusciceps and A. belzebuth respectively. Ateles hybridus distribution area is the least protected of all, only 0.67% of the remnant area is protected. Ateles hybridus is the species that has suffered most from habitat destruction, resulting in a large reduction of its potential distribution area. This species is surrounded by a high number of human populations and this may be the reason for its high level of threat. Only 9% of the potential distribution area remained as continuous forest for Ateles hybridus and this demonstrates the critical situation for this species in Colombia.

Local attitudes and the effects of provisioning: bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) at a south Indian temple.

James Pattenden, Department of Anthropology, School of Social Science and Law, Oxford Brookes University

Some species of monkey in the genus Macaca are able to thrive in human altered habitats, leading to their designation as weed species. This research is an investigation into one species, the bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), and the cultural framework that led to its commensal relationship with humans. The attitudes of residents living alongside monkeys are examined and the relationship between provisioning and macaque aggression is assessed. Residents were interviewed to assess attitudes towards aggressive macaque behaviour and provisioning reasons. Interviews of tourists were also conducted to examine provisioning levels at five locations and the impact on macaque behaviour. The results indicate that most residents are provisioning and do so for spiritual reasons, to receive blessings from God or Hanuman in return. Most of the attitudes of residents living with macaques are positive despite most people experiencing some level of macaque aggression. Any aggressive behaviour from monkeys is seen as mischievous, not malicious. Residents rarely acted aggressively towards macaques for fear of spiritual reprisal but altered their behaviour instead, making living with monkeys less troublesome, such as carrying sticks. Two families suffered extreme financial difficulties from macaques crop-raiding. .Macaque aggression was highest at the sites where provisioning was lowest. Possible solutions are discussed taking resident attitudes into account.

Baboon Crop-raiding: Pre-adaptation & Success Caroline Ross & Ymke Warren, School of Life & Sports Sciences, Roehampton University

Crop-raiding baboons may benefit from the nutritional quality of crops & their ease of location & preparation. Thus the human environment may not only stimulate primates to undertake ‘new' behaviours, but also, allow them more time & energy to develop innovative behaviours. Many reports suggest that crop-raiding primates use specific behaviours to enhance their raiding success . Here we describe crop-raiding behaviour in baboons and discuss their evolutionary origins.

[Poster originally presented at the IPS 2004 Conference] Local people's perceptions of a human-wildlife conflict mitigation strategy in Budongo Forest, Uganda Amanda D. Webber, Department of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences and Law, Oxford Brookes University (awebber@brookes.ac.uk) Primate crop raiding is a major cause of human-wildlife conflict in the forests of northwest Uganda. In an attempt to ameliorate the situation, an innovative conflict mitigation strategy was established in villages around Budongo Forest Reserve in 2002. ‘Live traps' were developed that allowed the identification of crop raiding animals; vermin could be disposed of and endangered species released unharmed. Local people assisted in the building of the traps, agreed to stop using non-discriminate forms of crop protection (snares, mantraps) and to maintain the structure. Unfortunately none of the traps were working in 2004; therefore interviews were conducted to assess local people's perceptions of the intervention. Forty percent of respondents do not believe the strategy was effective; however, this appears to be due to farmers understanding the trap as a vermin control measure not as a method of reducing crop raiding. Many farmers do not believe that crop raiding could ever be solved while restrictions were imposed upon local people by external agencies, not to destroy forest, use snares etc. The perceived shift of control from farmers to the authorities seems to connect with a perceived transference of ownership of wildlife and the forest environment; the same external agencies are also believed to have responsibility for the traps. This is a major concern for conservation. Perceived lack of control by local people can lead to an increased perception of environmental risk (in this case crop raiding by wild animals), this, in turn, has been known to lead to a decreased support for wildlife and a lack of faith in authorities (Riley & Decker 2000). It is vital that research continues into conflict mitigation strategies and their acceptance by local people, only then will we be able to begin to develop effective and sustainable solutions.