PSGB Spring Meeting 2004
‘The diversity of zoo primate research’
Monday 29th & Tuesday 30th March
Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Devon, UK.
‘The diversity of zoo primate research’ will be the theme for the first day of the meeting. We aim to illustrate how zoos provide a unique resource for primate research through the presentation of data collected in zoos. Diverse issues that will be addressed include: behaviour and cognition, nutrition and physiology and applied research, including topics in conservation and housing and husbandry. We hope to publish the papers presented during this session.
The second day of talks will be open. At Easter meetings there is special emphasis placed on presentations from students. Given the location and theme of this meeting, talks are also welcomed from zoo personnel who may have conducted research as part of their work. Prizes will be awarded for the best oral and poster presentations by a student or zoo professional/keeper.
Talks should run for about 15mins plus 5mins for questions. Poster dimensions should not exceed A0 size (841mm x 1189mm); posters will be acceptable in either landscape/portrait format.
Registration
As numbers are limited please return registration forms before Monday 15th March. Registration will take place at the zoo on Sunday 28th (by arrangement, please e-mail: sheona.mcgovern@paigntonzoo.org.uk) or Monday 29th (between 0830-0915).
Registration forms are available here in PDF format (requires Acrobat Reader) or as an RTF file (suitable for most word processors).
Directions
A map of Paignton has been attached. Delegates can also visit the following websites (http://rp.rac.co.uk/routeplanner; http://www.streetmap.co.uk - Paignton Zoo: TQ4 7EU, Living coasts: TQ1 2BG).
Accommodation
A list of accommodation has been put together and rooms have been reserved until Thursday 12th February. Please book early as this is tourist resort and the meeting is timetabled for a very busy time of the year.
Bursaries
There are a limited number of bursaries to support attendance to the meeting by students. You need to deliver an oral presentation to be eligible. Please indicate on your registration form if you wish to apply for one of these bursaries (or contact Vicky Melfi or Sheona McGovern).
Social events
Registered delegates are offered free guided tours of the zoo on Sunday afternoon. These will be lead by members of our science, mammal and/or veterinary departments. An icebreaker on Sunday (28th March) evening will take place in Torquay at our newly opened marine aviary: Living Coasts, www.livingcoasts.org.uk. Attendance includes a guided tour. The bar will be open and ‘cafeteria style’ meals will be available at approx. £5.00, with desserts at approx. £2.00.
Book EARLY for cheap accommodation
All hotel rooms have tea and coffee making facilities, colour TV and ensuite/private bathrooms. All hotels are situated about a mile and a half from the zoo. Please make your bookings directly with the hotels. If you want to share a room, let us know and we will put you in touch with others who want to share.
In order of price (cheapest first!)
Paignton Court Hotel
16 rooms (prefers people to share rooms – must stay minimum 2 nights), small bar, no credit card facilities. Situated within 200 yards of the beach, harbour and promenade, (where most of the pubs and clubs are situated).
Contact Sue or Keith – 01803 553111 or www.paignton-court-hotel.co.uk
Sands Hotel
11 Rooms (of which 2 singles, 3 twin and 6 doubles), TV lounge and bar, credit cards accepted, food available
Contact Lorraine – 01803 551282 or email: sands.hotel@virgin.net
32 Sands Road, Paignton.
Markham Court Hotel
20 rooms smoking allowed, large bar, no credit card facilities.
Contact Brian Cook – 01803 557199.
Dartmouth Road, Paignton.
Cleve Court Hotel
18 rooms (of which 1 is a single the rest are twins or family rooms)
Contact Margaret or Carole - 01803 551444 or www.clevecourthotel.co.uk
Timetable
Sunday
Guided tours of the zoo, with members of the science, mammal
and/or veterinary department, by arrangement.
Registration.
Monday
0830-0900 Registration ~ Tea & Coffee
0900-0910 Welcome & Overview of Zoo Primate Management ~Neil Bemment,
Curator of Mammals
0910-0940 Mike Bruford ~ Molecular Genetics and Management of Captive
Primates.
0940-1010 Kristiaan D'Août et al. ~ Non-invasive studies of primate
locomotion in captive populations.
1010-1030 Victoria Cooper & Geoff Hosey ~ Has sexual dichromatism
in the subspeices of brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus) evolved as a
result of female preference?
1030-1050 Órlaith Fraser & Amy Plowman ~ What is the function
of notification in hamadryas baboons?
1050-1110 Christine Caldwell ~ Studying social learning and innovation
in zoo-housed primates
1110-1140 Tea, Coffee & time to view posters
1140-1210 Sonya Hill & Donald Broom ~ Behavioural and physiological
measures of disturbance in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla
gorilla gorilla)
1210-1240 Stephanie Wehnelt et al. ~ Visitor numbers effect endocrinological
stress levels and behaviour in orang-utans at Chester Zoo.
1240-1300 Courtney Keane & Nicola Marples ~ A study of the behaviour
of a gorilla group in Dublin Zoo, based on the effects of visitors.
1300-1320 Ross Snipp ~ The behavioural response of 3 species of lemur
(Eulemur fulvus rufus, Eulemur rubriventer & Varecia
variegata variegata) to a mixed species exhibit and the presence of
visitors.
1320-1340 Sharon Redrobe ~ The medical management of social behaviour
in gorillas
1340-1510 Lunch, time to view posters & attend events
1510-1540 Geoff Hosey & Lindsay Skyner ~ Does self-injurious behaviour
occur in zoo primates?
1540-1600 Jeroen Stevens et al. ~ Dominance and power relations in captive
bonobos
1600-1620 Nicholas Glaves & Myfanwy Griffith ~ The appropriate use
of enrichment items for captive chimpanzees
1620-1640 Susan Wiper & Mary Holland ~ Social group behaviour in captive
chimpanzees
1640-1650 Mark Prescott ~ The Primate Society of Great Britain Captive
Care Working Party
Tuesday
0830-0900 Tea, Coffee & time to view posters
0900-0920 Andrea Fidgett ~ Feeding monkeys nuts? Progress in captive primate
nutrition.
0920-0940 Jim Lawson ~ A review of current understanding on marmoset nutrition
in relation to immune sensitisation & 'Gluten' intolerance.
0940-1000 Marina Vancatova ~ The growth and development of chimpanzees
and orangutans in captivity.
1000-1020 Fay Poyser, Vicky Melfi & Ghislaine Sayers ~ Trichuris
sp. in zoo-housed colobines
1020-1030 Vicky Melfi ~ Zoo primate research: A summary.
1030-1110 Tea, Coffee & time to view posters
1110-1130 Kate Jeffery et al. ~ Genetic relatedness of western lowland
gorillas at Lope, Gabon
1130-1150 A Nowell & A Fletcher ~ The development of feeding behaviour
in immature wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
1150-1210 Clare Cunningham & James Anderson ~ Tool manipulation to
gain a reward in gibbons: Insight, learning & understanding
1210-1230 Erik Willems ~ Ultimate causes of female transfer in the Thomas
langur (Presbytis thomasi)
1230-1250 Corrie Waitt & Anthony Little ~ Facial attractiveness may
influence nonhuman primate mate choice
1250-1300 Closing remarks & presentation prizes
Formal timetable over: Opportunity to take part in events or view the
zoo
1400-1700 Council Meeting ~ Council Members ONLY in the Board Room.
Posters
Amy Roeder et al. ~ Research infrastructure to promote primate
molecular biology: INPRIMAT
Jayne Tennatn & Alison Fletcher ~ The development of communicative
behaviour in captive chimpanzees
A. Nekaris & L. Bernede ~ Reccomendations for the captive management
of slender lorises (Loris tardigradus & L. lydekkerianus)
based on long-term studies in the wild
Cara McCusker et al. ~ Does captivity ameliorate the establised link between
social status and the HPA activity that is evident in wild groups of ring
tailed lemur (Lemur catta)?
Lyndsey Skyner et al. ~ Methods of measuring proximity in zoo primates
- a comparison
Yvan Russell ~ Third-party grooming in captive chimpanzee groups
Hannah Massey ~ The changes in behaviour during the introduction of an
unfamiliar silverback male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
Matt McLennan ~ Social housing in captive chimpanzees: The influence of
group size and complexity on behaviour
Wanda McCormick et al. ~ Lemurs pumping iron.
Sarah Carroll, Ruth Parkinson & Liva Hansen ~ Macaca ochreata brunnescens:
an endemic primate of Southeast Sulawesi.
Poppy McDonald & Christine Caldwell ~ Transitive inference and transitive
effects in Bornean orang utans (Pongo pymaeus) at Paignton Zoo
Environmental Park.
Sharon Redrobe & Mel Gage ~ Cataract surgery and treatment in an adult
Western Lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
TALK ABSTRACTS
Molecular Genetics and Management of Captive Primates.
M.W. Bruford
School of Biosciences, Cardiff University.
Powerful molecular genetic tools have been available to scientists and
zoo managers curating primate populations in captivity for over a decade.
However, whereas primate centres and biomedical research institutes have
been able to use molecular techniques to characterise and manage their
colonies with considerable precision, zoos in general have been slower
to react. There are a number of potential reasons for this: a) ethical
constraints have prevented ad hoc sampling of captive primates; b) the
potential benefits and applications of molecular analysis have not been
clear or relevant; c) expense of analysis and d) lack of available commercial
laboratories to carry out the work. In my talk I will tackle these issues
and outline the benefits and costs that genetic ‘benchmarking’
of captive populations can bring. I will first highlight recent developments
in non-invasive genetic analysis which potentially circumvent the need
for ethical considerations. Next I will detail the kind of information
that can be routinely produced to map primate diversity, for example taxonomy,
genetic variation and parentage/relatedness analysis and will use recent
examples from the literature. Finally, I will discuss the practical issues
of expense, value for money and the possibilities for commercial outsourcing
of primate genetic testing at the present time. I will attempt to evaluate
whether or not such analysis is worth the effort for zoos, where there
are often limited resources and many other priorities competing for them.
Finally I will introduce a recent EC-funded project (INPRIMAT) which is
attempting to establish and manage a European-based primate genetic resources
program to assist all Institutions in incorporating genetic management
of their primate populations.
Non-invasive studies of primate locomotion in captive populations.
K. D’Août 1,2, K. Schoonaert 1,2, E. Vereecke 1,2, D. De Clercq
3, P. Aerts 2 & L. Van Elsacker 1,2.
1 Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Belgium, 2 Department of Biology,
University of Antwerp, Belgium & 3 Movement and Sport Sciences, Ghent
University, Belgium.
For many primate species, studying zoo populations offers the only realistic
option for gathering detailed functional-morphological data of multiple
subjects. Great advantages of working in zoos include the availability
of background information of the subjects, the option to provide training,
and the possibility to construct complex experimental set-ups. Disadvantages
may include small sample sizes, populations deviating in some characteristics
from wild populations, and constraints imposed by the daily routine of
a zoo, which has a primarily educational, not scientific, task.
This paper illustrates how detailed studies of primate locomotion can
be carried out in a zoo, taking into account the specific requirements
of working in a zoo environment.
In the Wild Animal Park of Planckendael (Belgium), ongoing studies focus
on terrestrial locomotion of bonobos (Pan paniscus) and gibbons (Hylobates
lar), and on arboreal locomotion in bonobos.
We analyse 3D whole-body kinematics of spontaneous and trained locomotion
using multiple cameras incorporated in the animal houses. Additionally,
we collect kinetic data using commercial force-plates and purpose-built
set-ups. For the terrestrial studies, we also collect plantar pressure
data. When possible, anatomical and morphometrical data of the species
are gathered. An integration of these data delivers an insight in the
mechanics of locomotion in these species, and also allows for a comparison
with other primates. This paper presents sample results and frames them
in a comparative and evolutionary context. Although these projects tackle
fundamental biomechanical and palaeo-anthropological questions, zoo-related
spin-off can be generated, for example as scientifically founded housing
recommendations and educational programmes.
We acknowledge the bonobo keepers from Planckendael for their practical
help with the research and Joris Jacobs for the training. This work is
supported by the FWO-Vlaanderen and by the Flemish Government, through
structural support of the CRC.
Has sexual dichromatism in the subspecies of brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus)
evolved as a result of female preference?
V. J. Cooper & G. R. Hosey
Psychology & Life Sciences, Bolton Institute, Deane Road, Bolton,
BL3 5AB. UK.
Sexual dichromatism, where males and females of the same species show
marked differences in colouration is present in many animals. The evolution
of such characteristics are best explained through sexual selection, where
the less colourful sex develops a preference for brightness or colour
in the most colourful sex. This phenomenon is well known in birds, but
is less well documented in mammals even though sexual dichromatism occurs
in many mammals. In the brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus) the males of the
different subspecies are more brightly coloured than the females, particularly
around the head and face. Furthermore the males of the different subspecies
are also strikingly different from one another. We hypothesize that sexual
dichromatism in Eulemur fulvus evolved as a result of a female preference
for brightly coloured males. We carried out an experiment measuring the
amount of time female lemurs viewed photographs of a male that have undergone
digital manipulation changing the perceived colourfulness of the image.
The results support our hypothesis and are consistent with the predictions
of sexual selection theory.
Key words: Eulemur fulvus, sexual dichromatism, female preference, colour
What is the function of notification in hamadryas baboons?
Ó. Fraser1,2 & A. Plowman1
Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon TQ4 7EU
& School of Biosciences, University of Wales Cardiff, PO Box 915,
Cardiff CF10 3TL.
Notification is a form of ritualised greeting behaviour unique to adult
male hamadryas baboons (Papio cyanocephalus hamadryas). Originally observed
in the wild when harem leaders signalled the direction of travel to their
followers on daily foraging marches, its true function is as yet unknown.
Notification involves the approach of an adult male baboon to another
male and presentation of his hind quarters, followed by retreat. It has
been suggested that notification is used to avoid aggressive conflicts
in many circumstances, possibly having an appeasing effect on the notifier,
and it has also been linked to the dominance-subordination relationship
between the males. The aim of this study is to investigate the possible
functions of this behaviour.
Instances of notification were observed over six months amongst eight
adult males in a troop of 60 captive bred hamadryas baboons at Paignton
Zoo. Observation sessions in which notification occurred were compared
with control periods. Different forms of notification have been classified
according to the recipient’s response, which might be presenting,
mounting, touching of the buttocks or genitals or simply ignoring. Results
suggest that submission, alliance, peacekeeping and reconciliation are
the main functions of notification.
Studying social learning and innovation in zoo-housed primates.
C. A. Caldwell
School of Psychology, University of Exeter, and Paignton Zoo Environmental
Park
Kummer and Goodall (1985) stated that “systematic experimentation
(such as the introduction of a variety of carefully designed ecological
and technical ‘problems’ and long-term recordings of reactions
to them) both in free living and captive groups would provide a new way
of studying the phenomena of innovative behaviours and their transmission
through and between social groups”. In zoos, we are constantly introducing
such new challenges to groups of animals, in the form of environmental
enrichment. However we rarely capitalise on the data which can be obtained
from these natural experiments regarding innovation and social learning.
I will present preliminary data that has been collected on social learning
in captive primates at Paignton Zoo in Devon, and suggest some possible
data collection methods which can be broadly applied to studying the social
transmission of new behaviours in zoo housed primates.
Behavioural and physiological measures of disturbance in captive western
lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).
S. P. Hill & D. M. Broom
Animal Welfare and Human – Animal Interactions Group, Department
of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Approximately 800 western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) are
currently housed in zoological collections world wide, and others live
in African sanctuaries as a result of issues such as the bushmeat crisis.
Until recently, there has been a lack of scientific assessment of the
behavioural flexibility of gorillas living in captivity and our theoretical
understanding of the needs of these apes has thus been limited. This is
in part due to the bias towards studies of behaviour and welfare in other
non-human primates, such as chimpanzees and macaques, as these are more
common laboratory and zoo species and are therefore found in larger numbers
in captivity. This study contributes towards redressing this imbalance
in the literature by investigating behavioural and physiological measures
of disturbance and adaptation in captive gorillas, in relation to their
housing. Two main conditions have been assessed: adaptations to being
moved to a new enclosure, and adaptations to environmental enrichment
efforts in existing enclosures. Assessments of the behavioural changes
in individual animals allow us to draw conclusions about the welfare of
these gorillas under the different conditions. We have also validated
a non-invasive technique for the measurement of faecal glucocorticoids
(or their metabolites) in western lowland gorillas, which can be applied
to both wild and captive populations of these apes. Glucocorticoids are
released from the adrenal cortex by animals under stress, which in conjunction
with other welfare indicators (such as behaviour) can more strongly show
whether or not an animal is experiencing a biologically significant disturbance
under a certain condition. In this paper we present our preliminary findings
on this new technique for gorillas, summarise our current understanding
of behavioural and physiological indicators of disturbance in these apes,
and draw parallels with human psychological disorders that have similar
traits to abnormal behaviours in captive gorillas.
Visitor numbers effect endocrinological stress levels and behaviour
in orang-utans at Chester Zoo.
S. Wehnelt1, V. Fishlock_, E. Condon_, R. Coleman_ & C. Schaffner_,
_North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Chester CH2 1LH, UK
& _Departments of Psychology and Biology, University College Chester,
Parkgate Road, Chester, CH1 4BJ, UK. _
The breeding success of captive orang-utans is suboptimal. The zoo population
has not grown for a number of years, due to females not breeding regularly
and a relatively high juvenile mortality rate. The underlying causes are
not known and investigations into the social and environmental needs of
these animals are urgently required. Disturbances and restrictions from
the environment can have a negative impact on welfare and breeding of
zoo animals. Humans and especially visitors are known to have a strong
influence on the behaviour of zoo animals and previous research has shown
that high visitor numbers can have a negative effect on certain welfare
indicators in zoo primates.
This study focuses on the effect of visitor numbers on endocrinological
stress levels and behaviour in ten orang-utans kept at Chester Zoo. Saliva
and urine samples were collected in the morning following an observation
day. Observations were spread over six months to include social and environmental
variations. Different measures of visitor numbers were compared and found
to be positively correlated. Enzyme-immunoassays were successfully validated
immunologically and biologically to quantify levels of cortisol excreted
in saliva and urine. Hormone levels were subsequently used as indicators
of stress. We then assessed the relationship between relevant visitor
number categories and cortisol levels. We also investigated if frequencies
of behaviours that are potential welfare indicators change with levels
of visitor numbers. Saliva cortisol levels did not show any relation to
visitor numbers of the previous day. Urinary cortisol levels, however,
reflected the different levels of visitor presence by increasing significantly
with higher visitor numbers. We found no correlation between urinary and
salivary cortisol levels. An increase in the number of visitors was also
associated with significant changes in behaviour frequencies.
In accordance with previous research, we could show that visitor numbers
have a meaningful impact on the behaviour and the physiological stress
axis in zoo primates. The possible consequences of this effect are discussed,
including the potential negative influence of visitors on the welfare
of orang-utans, which could have a knock-on effect on their captive breeding
success. This study also provides base line information on stress hormone
levels in orang-utans, which offers a valuable foundation for further
research into the welfare and breeding of captive orang-utans.
A Study of the Behaviour of a Gorilla Group in the Dublin Zoo Based
on the Effects of Zoo Visitors.
C. Keane & N. Marples
Department of Zoology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland and Dublin
Zoo, Phoenix Park, Dublin 8, Ireland
A group of gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) have been studied in the
Dublin Zoo and their behaviour in the presence of visitors has been monitored
during various conditions: before the birth of an infant, after the birth
of the infant, and with various cage modifications in place.
The purpose of this portion of the study was to decrease visitor-induced
stress, previously detected in the gorillas, by putting in place temporary
alterations to the gorilla house. The gorillas’ behaviour was observed
during the most crowded visitor condition with various alterations in
place and compared to their behaviour during crowded conditions with no
alterations in place. The alterations included: a barrier between the
visitors and the viewing window, a carpet and wall hangings, signs requesting
visitors to be quiet and not bang on the glass, camouflage screening on
the viewing window, Hessian screening on the viewing window, educational
posters about gorillas and a Dublin Zoo volunteer to answer questions
about gorillas.
Since a negative visitor effect was already detected in this group of
gorillas when visitor numbers were high, the aim of the alterations was
to reduce such things as the sound level in the gorilla house, and avoidance
behaviour seen in all gorillas, and aggression in the silverback. The
results of this study showed sound level did decrease slightly during
a few of the alterations, but never went below the 60dB threshold of tolerance
for the silverback. The animals did reduce the amount of time spent with
their backs towards the viewing window with the barrier and the screenings
in place. The silverback, however, spent more time performing stereotypical
behaviours when the screening was in place. Aggression in the silverback
was not affected by the alterations and appears to be linked to the sound
level inside the house. The signs and educational posters had no effect,
except that the presence of the zoo volunteer may have reduced instances
of banging on the glass.
The behavioural response of three species of lemur (Eulemur fulvus
rufus, Eulemur rubriventer and Varecia variegata variegata) to a mixed
species exhibit and the presence of visitors.
R. Snipp
Oxford Brookes University.
The behavioural response of three groups of lemur to a mixed species walk
through exhibit was studied. Mixing primate species within the same exhibit
is not a new concept, but is one that is becoming increasingly more common.
By mixing species together zoos can positively influence population management,
by reducing the amount of space required to manage endangered species
and can actively improve the educational experience of the visiting public.
Allowing the public to walk through the exhibit brings them closer to
the animals, and puts them in the animal’s environment an experience
that could shape how they perceive those animals in the future and their
support for conservation projects. This investigation examined and compared
the activity budget, social behaviour and exhibit use of three species
of lemur, black and white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata),
red-fronted brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus rufus) and the red-bellied lemur
(Eulemur rubriventer). Also examined was how the presence of visitors
within the exhibit affected these variables. An instantaneous focal animal
sampling method was used to collect data on two individuals from each
group. All observations took place within the exhibit, and collected data
on behaviour, social proximity, height above ground, exhibit use and the
number of visitors present in the exhibit. It was shown that inactive
behaviours formed a large proportion of the activity budget for each species,
and levels of activity, grooming and feeding were low. There were significant
differences between species in the amount of time engaged in different
inactive behaviours, grooming and time spent out of sight. Considerable
differences were found in the distribution of each species across the
exhibit, and distinct separation found in use of the vertical strata.
Presence of visitors within the enclosure is shown to have little influence
on the behaviour and the exhibit use of these species.
Use of tranquilisers to moderate aggression and facilitate introductions
in a male Western Lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).
S. Redrobe1 & M. Gage2
1Veterinary & 2Primate Departments, Bristol Zoo Gardens, Clifton,
UK
This paper describes the preliminary results using management techniques
and medications to moderate inappropriate aggression in a male gorilla.
A 20-year-old male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) was
relocated to live with two gorillas; a 27-year-old female (female 1) and
a 23-year-old female (female 2). This male had a previous history of injuring
females. On arrival the male appeared agitated and very nervous as evidenced
by excessive sweating, ‘raspberry’ blowing’ and hooting.
When introduced, the male caused injury to one of the females and remained
agitated.
Given the male’s history of repeated injurious behaviour, an attempt
to moderate his aggression using medication was initiated. Various drug
regimes were tried until the final successful regime of Sulpiride (200-400mg
twice daily) with haloperidol (40-60mg once daily) was used from day 76
after initial introduction. The male’s expression of agitation i.e.
sweating, ‘raspberry’ blowing, was reduced to almost zero
using this drug combination. The male first mated female 2 on day 83 and
female 1 on day 94. The male attacked female 1 again on day 99; this is
the last attack to date. The haloperidol was tapered to zero by day 160.
Nulliparous female 2 conceived on day 184. From day 173 after initial
introductions, all three animals were left together all day and all night.
The Sulpiride dose was reduced from day 198 gradually to 200mg twice daily
by day 232 (at time of writing).
Currently, the male’s behaviour is subdued as he is still on medication.
However, he is still behaving as a normal male; mating, socialising and
playing with the females. He chastises the females where appropriate but
this has not escalated to overly aggressive, injurious behaviour. He is
not agitated by changes in the environment anymore. He has now formed
a strong bond with female 1 and remains very tolerant of female 2.
Drugs referred to in text.
Haloperidol tablets BP 20mg (APS Ltd, Leeds, England)
Sulpiride 200mg tablets; ‘Sulpitil’ (Pharmacia, Milton Keynes,
UK)
Does self-injurious behaviour occur in zoo primates?
G. Hosey1 & L. Skyner2
1 Psychology & Life Sciences, Bolton Institute, Bolton BL3 5AB, UK
& 2 Biological Sciences, University College Chester, Chester CH1 4BJ,
UK
It has long been known that social isolation, particularly in infancy,
can lead to the development of abnormal behaviours in some primates, and
that this can include self-injurious behaviour (SIB), where the animal
repeatedly injures parts of its own body. SIB can, however, also occur
in non-isolate-reared primates and can be triggered by frustration or
environmental events. SIB has mostly been reported from laboratory primates,
and is usually associated with macaques. Whether it occurs in zoo primates,
and if so to what extent, has not previously been systematically studied.
Here we report the results of a questionnaire-based survey of British
zoos designed to find out the extent of SIB in zoo primates, and whether
it was associated with any environmental or developmental events. Responses
to the questionnaire indicated that although SIB occurred across a range
of primate species, its incidence was very low. A variety of environmental
events was identified by the respondents as implicated in initiating SIB,
and although the data set was too small to confirm these statistically,
several trends were discernable. It was concluded that SIB is not a major
problem in zoo primates.
Dominance and power relations in captive bonobos.
J. Stevens1,2, H. Vervaecke1,2, H. De Vries3 & L. Van Elsacker1,2
1 University of Antwerp, Department of Biology, Universiteitsplein 1 B
2610 Wilrijk, Belgium, 2 Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological
Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, B-2018 Antwerp, Belgium &
3 Utrecht University , Department of Behavioural Biology, Padualaan 14,
P.O. Box 80.086 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands.
While bonobos have been studied for more than thirty years in the field
and in captivity, knowledge about social systems is this species still
lags behind knowledge of its sister species, the chimpanzee. Especially
dominance relations in this species remain a topic of debate. Bonobos
are described as female dominant, but this has been disputed by various
authors. Furthermore the species is called ‘egalitarian’,
but dominance styles have not systematically been studied yet in this
species. While research in the field has been discontinuous, captive research
has been criticised because captive data stem from only a few of the captive
groups.
Moreover the study of dominance itself is currently and constantly being
refined. Especially the concept of power as a combination of dominance
and leverage may have important implications for the way we view dominance
relations.
We aim to use new methodological and theoretical insights to address topics
on dominance, dominance styles and power in bonobos by comparing agonistic
behaviour of 29 individuals in five captive bonobo groups, which were
studied for a total of 1882 hours. First we investigate intersexual conflicts
to see whether females consistently dominate males. Second we examine
whether ‘fleeing upon aggression’ can be used as a dominance
measure in different captive groups. The properties of found dominance
hierarchies are evaluated. Then we look into dominance styles, first on
a society level, by correlating steepness of dominance hierarchies with
characteristics of aggressive interactions and also on a relationship
level, by studying the dyadic aggression on a relationship level. Finally
we apply the power concept to bonobos.
The appropriate use of enrichment items for captive chimpanzees (Pan
troglodytes).
N. I. Glaves & M. Griffith
Hull University, Bishop Burton College, Bishop Burton, East Yorkshire.
The psychological and behavioural health of captive animals is subject
to a great degree of interest. Many primate enclosures, particularly those
in zoos, contain numerous enrichment devices that collectively form an
environment akin to the species’ natural habitat (Ostrower and Brent
2000); however there appears to be little research regarding the extent
to which the occupants of such enclosures utilise them for their intended
activity. This study explores the amount of time that a group of seven
chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) (three adult males, two juvenile females
and two adult females), housed at Whipsnade zoo, spend in the different
areas of their enclosure, and the range of behaviours they exhibit there.
The enclosure was divided into 13 different areas based on what the area
was used for (i.e. feeding, climbing, etc), or geographical features of
the enclosure, (i.e. table, mound, trees, etc). The behaviours were split
into 8 categories including aggression, feeding/foraging, grooming, play,
rest, locomotion, sexual behaviour and unknown. 10 hours of data were
collected using a scan sampling technique. The data were then analysed
using the chi-squared test to ascertain an association between the area
that they were in and their behaviour. The results show a significant
association exists between where the chimps are in their enclosure and
the activity in which they are involved, however they also show that the
chimps strongly favour certain areas of their enclosure over others (particularly
the feeding area and mound 2). This may be associated with the provision
of food and/or the degree of elevation of the specific area. What was
not clear, however was why other areas of the enclosure were used so infrequently,
particularly the climbing frame, as according to Reinhardt (2000), most
nonhuman primates are adapted to an arboreal lifestyle, thus assess to
a vertical dimension of their living space is of equal importance to that
of a horizontal dimension.
References.
Ostrower, S., Brent, L. (2000). Olfactory Enrichment for Captive Chimpanzees:
Response to Different Odours. Located at: http://www.brown.edu/Research/Primate/lpn31-2.html#grief
Reinhardt, V. (2000). Space Utilisation by Captive Rhesus Monkeys. Located
at: http://www.awionline.org/lab_animals/biblio/at.htm 12/10/03.
Social group behaviour in captive chimpanzees.
S. M. Wiper & M. Holland
Hull University, Bishop Burton College, Bishop Burton, East Yorkshire
Chimpanzees (Pan troglogytes) have a fission-fusion society. Females migrate,
upon adolescence, to a new community whereas males live within their natal
territories (Goodall, 1986a; Macdonald, 2001). As a result males are more
closely related and sociable, and have a more male-bonded society. Males
form dominance hierarchies and coalitions (Boesch, 1996). Upon adolescence
males will strive to maintain and better their social rank, and many of
their interactions are to this end (Goodall, 1986a). The intense competition
for status causes conflicts, which are diffused by the fission-fusion
society. In a captive situation chimpanzees have limited freedom of movement,
and are often unable to withdraw effectively from aversive stimulation
that may be caused by cohabiting conspecifics. It has been suggested that
the lack of the fission-fusion society may underlie some behavioural abnormalities
in captive chimpanzees (Fritz & Howell, 2001). Research was undertaken
on the social preference of Zepher, a 12 year old male at Whipsnade Safari
Park who has considerable hair loss due to plucking. The other members
of the group include:- Primrose, a 35 year old female, Nicki a 19 year
old male, his brother Wally a 16 year old, Bonnie (Zephyr’s sister)
a 17 year old and 3 juvenile males. Observations were made outside the
chimpanzee enclosure between 3rd and 5th June 2003 with a total of 760
minutes of data being recorded. Instantaneous samples were taken of the
focal male, Zepher every 5 minutes. The position, and distance, of the
rest of the group was recorded in relation to Zepher. Grooming behaviour
was also recorded as continuous sampling whenever Zepher was involved.
The data was analysed and the results showed that Zepher had a significant
preference to the females within the group over the males. This was an
unexpected result as females in the wild are subordinate to all males
and play no part in male competition for dominance in the wild. Conversely,
Goodall (1986b) stated that females in captivity have been found to form
close bonds and play a more active role in the ordering of societies and
thus their alliances with a male may swing the dominance in favour of
the male of their choice. What was not clear from the data collected was
if Zepher chose not to associate with the males of the group, or that
they chose not to associate with him.
The Primate Society of Great Britain Captive Care Working Party.
M. J. Prescott
Research Animals Department, RSPCA, Horsham, West Sussex, UK
The Captive Care Working Party (CCWP) is one of two standing working parties
of the Primate Society of Great Britain, the other being the Conservation
Working Party. The CCWP provides expert advice within and outside of the
Society and co-ordinates action on matters relating to the welfare of
primates in laboratories, zoos and other captive settings. The Working
Party focuses on practical issues and welfare concerns, deferring discussion
of the ethical issues associated with primate use to more appropriate
bodies. Our organisation, however, is committed to the Three Rs of humane
experimental technique: replacement of animals with humane alternatives;
reduction in the number of animals used; and refinement to reduce to a
minimum the suffering experienced by the animals throughout their lives
– not just during experiments, but also as a result of the way they
are acquired, housed, cared for and transported.
The CCWP is comprised of members with specialist knowledge of, or a professional
interest in, the care of primates in captivity. It comprises researchers,
veterinarians, animal care staff and animal welfare representatives who
have experience with a wide range of primate species (New and Old World
monkeys and apes). The Working Party meets biannually and contact between
members is maintained through email. At meetings, the CCWP reviews developments
in laws, practice and science, and news relating to captive primates.
Typically our review will include changes to UK and European legislation;
establishment or closure of research facilities; and news from the zoo
community. This presentation describes current areas of interest to the
CCWP and gives information on the PSGB Captive Care Grants that are awarded
annually to assist in research that will be of benefit to primate welfare
in captivity and primate welfare education.
Feeding monkeys nuts? Progress in captive primate nutrition.
A. L. Fidgett
North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Upton, Chester, CH2
1LH
email: a.fidgett@chesterzoo.co.uk
The challenge of describing the nutritional needs of primates is tremendous.
Studies of feeding ecology, gastrointestinal anatomy and detailed descriptions
of nutrient components have been completed for only a few species and
more intensive physiological, metabolic, biochemical and biomedical studies
have been done on a fewer still, predominantly in relation to their role
as surrogates in studies of human physiology and disease; this research
is the foundation of our understanding of primate nutrition. However,
the order Primates is diverse. More than 250 species and more than 600
subspecies are recognised with new species described nearly every year,
representing an incredible diversity and filling a large number of the
possible niches within the food web.
Modern zoos have adopted the propagation and conservation of rare species
as part of their mission, with an emphasis on health and reproduction
being essential in order to successfully contribute to co-ordinated captive
breeding programmes. In the captive situation, providing an appropriate
diet is critical for successful management and reproduction, yet often
our knowledge of ‘wild’ diets is very poor and generally limited
to ingredients, rather than specific information about nutrients consumed
or how nutritional needs change during the life cycle.
A thorough understanding of nutrition is central to securing the survival
and productivity of all species, whether free-ranging or captive. This
paper presents, with specific examples, non-invasive research techniques
to study nutrition that have been employed within zoos and instances where
research from the field has improved diets for captive primates. Enhanced
exchange of information between those involved in both field and captive
primate research can only benefit our mutual understanding of comparative
primate nutrition and the strategies evolved by wild species.
A review of current understanding on marmoset nutrition in relation to
immune sensitisation and ‘Gluten’ intolerance.
J. Lawson
Mazuri Zoo Foods, Witham, Essex, CM8 3AD.
The immune system is inextricably linked to the digestive system. Although
we are still discovering why some diet antigens are not recognised as
self or sustenance, we are more then aware of the potential for debilitating
immune disorders such as peanut anaphylaxis and coeliac disease to occur.
Nutrition has been linked with Marmoset Wasting Syndrome (MWS) and more
recently diet sensitivity has been implicated as one possible cause of
this serious disease. In particular, ‘gluten’ has been suggested
as a causative agent.
The immune system, diet antigens, MWS and an example of a working ‘gluten
free’ marmoset diet are briefly discussed.
The growth and development of chimpanzees and orangutans in captivity.
M. Vancatova
Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, U Krize 8, 158 00 Praha 5,
Czech Republic.
The longitudinal study of growth of apes has been started in 1994 in the
framework of the research project "Postnatal ontogeny of higher primates"
(Grant Agency of Czech Republic, grant project No. 206/96/0166). The orangutans
and chimpanzees (including one pair of twins) have been regularly measured
according to their age in two week, one month and three month intervals
(48 somatomeric traits). Our study of growth of apes has shown several
important facts. Growth pattern differs markedly in chimpanzees with a
low bimaturation and in orangutans with a very high bimaturation of males
and females. The rate of development is slower during first three years
in orangutans with accelerated growth after three years, remarkable adolescent
spurt in males and low adolescent spurt in females. Development is slower
in chimpanzees after three years with low adolescent spurt in males and
no adolescent spurt in females. There is a clean-cut trend to upper limb
and trunk elongation in orangutans while there is a slight tendency to
the relative lower limb elongation in chimpanzees. Trunk remains relatively
slender in chimpanzees while there is a marked trend to the increase of
trunk circumferences in orangutans. Decrease of body mass in newborn chimpanzees
during first six days of life is a very important fact. This process is
very probably analogical to that described in Homo sapiens populations
during the same period. The preliminary study of growth patterns chimpanzee
twins shows interesting features in relation with heredity and adaptive
potential of chimpanzee developmental pathways. There are two patterns
of growth, those which are similar between individuals and those which
are unique to individuals. Patterns of growth unique to individuals may
demonstrate that environmental factors outweigh anatomical adaptations
for growth in certain circumstances.
Trichuris sp. in zoo-housed colobines.
F. Poyser1,3, V. Melfi1† & G. Sayers2
1 Science Department, 2 Veterinary Department, Paignton Zoo Environmental
Park, Totnes Road, Devon, TQ4 7EU and 3 Manchester University, Manchester,
UK.
Trichuris trichiura is the third most common helminth infecting an estimated
1049 million people worldwide. It also infects monkeys and apes making
it an important zoonosis. This study investigated the methods used to
evaluate and manage this parasite burden in two groups (N=12) of socially
housed Abyssinian colobus (Colobus guereza kikuyensis) at Paignton Zoo
Environmental Park. The two groups were surveyed for Trichuris sp. over
a nine month period. Individual and group faecal samples were collected
daily during this period and egg counts/gram of faeces was estimated using
the McMaster’s technique. This presentation will discuss whether
the estimations of Trichuris egg counts/gram of faeces calculated from
group faecal samples were representative of individual colobus egg counts/gram
of faeces within the group. In addition, the relationship between the
intensity of the Trichuris burden and the age, sex and social dominance
of each individual was examined. These results will be discussed in relation
to animal welfare and social behaviour.
A summary of zoo primate research conducted and a view to the future.
V. Melfi
Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon, TQ4 7EU.
Zoos provide a unique and valuable resource for primate research. Indeed,
previous analyses of zoo research have shown that non-human primates are
favoured as subjects (Hardy, 1996). The types of research previously conducted
and the primate species studied have been investigated in this current
study using information gathered by the Federation of Zoological Gardens
of Great Britain and Ireland (O’Farrell and Stevenson, 2000; N=397)
and the American Association of Zoos and Aquaria (Hodskins, 1998, 2000;
Lankard, 2000, 2001; N=337), between 1996-2000. Analysis of these data
showed that a disproportionately high number of studies were conducted
on Hominidae (36.6%), while Prosimian families (11.2%) were less well
studied, with the exception of Lemuridae (9.8%). The types of projects
conducted in American zoos compared to those in Britain and Ireland differed,
with more physiological studies taking place in America, while most research
in British and Irish zoos was behavioural.
Results are also presented from a recent survey of American zoos which
explored the directions that the ape research could take in the future.
Genetic relatedness of western lowland gorialls at Lope, Gabon.
K. J. Jeffery1, K. Abernethy2, C. E. G. Tutin2, N. Anthony3, & M.
W. Bruford1.
1 School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Wales, 2 Department of Psychology,
University of Stirling, Scotland, & 3 Department of Biological Sciences,
University of New Orleans, USA.
We examined relatedness among western lowland gorillas from the Lopé
National Park, Gabon, using microsatellite markers amplified from shed
hairs. Our multi-locus system could determine gender and distinguish full
siblings with a probability of 1 x 10-5. At least six social groups and
several solitary males were identified and the data revealed much overlap
of spatial distribution. Dispersal events in both sexes were identified
directly through spatio-temporal tracking, and patterns of relatedness
were also consistent with higher than anticipated levels of female dispersal.
However, global levels and between group levels of female relatedness
were significantly higher than equivalent values for males, and silverbacks
from neighbouring groups were not closely related, suggesting that males
disperse further than females. Some males within groups were, however,
highly related, consistent with the hypothesis that group silverbacks
can monopolise reproduction over long periods. This study has provided
novel data on western lowland gorillas that are, in general, consistent
with both observations and other genetic data on western gorilla social
systems and provide a preliminary insight into the genetic structure of
Gabon's gorillas.
The development of feeding behaviour in immature western lowland gorillas
(Gorilla gorilla gorilla).
A. A. Nowell1, 2 & A. W. Fletcher 1
1 University College Chester, & 2 Mbeli Bai Study
Western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) diet is diverse, with
individuals feeding on a wide range of fruits, terrestrial herbaceous
vegetation, pith, stems, leaves and invertebrates. Gorillas use their
long period of dependence on the mother to learn how to find, select and
feed on this vast array of foods. Many food items contributing to this
diet require some level of processing. Techniques used by adults are incorporated
into the repertoires of younger individuals who gradually become more
efficient feeders (judged by the estimated intake of food). In some species,
e.g. lion tamarins and capuchin monkeys, important information on diet
choice and resources can be gained through the transfer of food items
between immature and older group members (usually the mother). This process
has not previously been documented in wild western lowland gorillas. Data
were collected during a study on behavioural development in a population
of wild western lowland gorillas at Mbeli Bai (a large, marshy clearing)
in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, Republic of Congo. The study
was conducted over a period of 16 months between February 2002 and August
2003 using scan and focal sampling of 59 individuals less than 8 years
of age, in 13 known social groups. Gorillas were observed for over 900
hours in total. Data will be presented on the ontogeny of feeding behaviour
in immatures, with specific reference to the time spent engaging in both
actual feeding and feeding-related behaviours at different ages, such
as play feeding (the manipulation of food items without ingestion), food
processing and actual ingestion of food items. The selection of food species
and part of the plant fed on species part will be examined, and its relation
to mineral and nutritional content will be explored. Data will also be
presented on the incidence of food transfers between mother and offspring.
Tool manipulation to gain a reward in gibbons: Insight, learning and
understanding.
C. Cunningham & J. Anderson
Scottish Primate Research Group, Department of Psychology, University
of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA.
Gibbons are small arboreal apes occupying the forests of south-east Asia,
that are neglected in cognitive research. Studies that have considered
aspects of gibbon cognition have reported these primates perform poorly
on cognitive tasks given their cortical complexity and phylogenetic position.
This research looks at the ability of gibbons to manipulate a tool in
order to gain a reward through insight or trial and error learning, and
their understanding of the relationship between the tool and their own
actions in obtaining a reward. Gibbons were presented with a rake that
could be used to pull in a food item placed out of direct reach. Two further
experiments presented the gibbons with a choice of two or three sets of
apparatus, only one of which was baited with a reward. There was no clear
evidence of insightful leaning and time to first solution varied significantly
across genera. Bunopithecus obtained the reward in significantly less
time in the first test, and continued to perform at the highest level
in subsequent experiments. Hylobates sp. performed poorly with most individuals
having no interaction with the apparatus at all. In choice tests, all
subjects that had learnt to use the tools, regardless of genus, performed
at a high level, achieving > 80% correct responses in both conditions,
suggesting an understanding of the relationship between the tool and the
task. Mean response times differed significantly with again Bunopithecus
performing with the greatest consistency and obtaining the reward in the
fastest time. The failure of Hylobates sp. to manipulate the tools can
be interpreted as diminished investigatory behaviour rather than a more
limited cognitive ability.
Ultimate causes of female transfer in the Thomas langur (Presbytis
thomasi).
E. Willems
Durham University, [e.p.willems@durham.ac.uk]
In contrast to the general mammalian dispersal pattern, female dispersal
is frequently reported in a number of species within the primate taxon.
It is mostly observed in species in which females do not form coalitions
or strict dominance hierarchies, i.e. when between-group resource competition
is low and within-group resource competition is of the scramble type.
Several ultimate hypotheses have been proposed to explain female dispersal
patterns in primates: reduction of predation risk, reduction of food competition,
inbreeding avoidance and infanticide avoidance through mate choice. This
study set out to test these hypotheses. Data were collected on a wild
population of Thomas langurs (Presbytis thomasi) over a 12 year period
at the Ketambe Research Station, Sumatra, Indonesia. Thomas langurs live
in one-male multi-female groups and female dispersal between these groups
(referred to as transfer) is a regular phenomenon.
The dispersal pattern in Thomas langurs involves both parous and nulliparous
females. Nulliparous females transferred when their father was still resident
at the time of maturity. Parous females transferred to the youngest interested
adult male. These selected, young males provided better protection to
offspring against predation and infanticide than the abandoned, old males.
Nulliparous dispersal was thus explained through inbreeding avoidance,
whereas parous dispersal was interpreted as an expression of mate choice.
Facial attractiveness may influence nonhuman primate mate choice.
C. Waitt1, & A. C. Little2
1 Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA,
UK, & 2 School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool, L69
7ZB, UK.
Facial beauty is an important criterion used by humans to appraise the
attractiveness of potential mates. Many researchers have proposed that
human aesthetic judgements of facial attractiveness preferences have a
biological basis, and these preferences have evolved via sexual selection
processes. It is possible that these preferences are more deeply rooted
in our evolutionary history than previously supposed, and that other primate
species besides humans may also use the face when selecting mates. This
investigation examined whether two factors reported to influence attractiveness
in human faces, symmetry and sexual dimorphism, also influence preferences
among nonhuman primates. Opposite-sexed conspecific images were altered
for symmetry and sexual dimorphism and then displayed to 13 adult rhesus
macaques. Significant preferences were found for facial symmetry and enhanced
opposite-sex secondary sexual traits. This study suggests human and nonhuman
primates may employ similar criteria to appraise facial attractiveness.
Therefore, utilisation of face shape in mate assessment could have evolved
prior to human origins.
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Research Infrastructure to Promote Primate Molecular
Biology: INPRIMAT.
A. D. Roeder1, M. W. Bruford1, B. Crouau-Roy2, X. Domingo-Roura3, G. Doxiadis4,
K. Jeffery1, M. Rocchi5, A.-C. Syvänen6, E., Verschoor4, H. Zischler7.
1 School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, UK; 2 Université Paul
Sabatier, Toulouse, France; 3 Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain;
4 Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands; 5 University
of Bari, Italy; 6Uppsala University, Sweden; 7 Institute of Anthropology,
University of Mainz, Germany.
INPRIMAT (www.inprimat.org) is a three year research project funded by
the European Commission. Begun in November 2002, the project is being
carried out as a collaboration between seven European institutions in
seven countries. The purpose of INPRIMAT is to provide the scientific
community with genetic tools to study primates by providing sample material,
information and sequence databases, or the methodology and technology
to carry out molecular studies. The INPRIMAT members are creating a collection
of non-human primate samples and cell cultures which are available to
the scientific community. Databasing and sharing available samples and
accessing further material from captive primates is a major component
of this project because the consortium members determined that no wild
primate will be sampled directly for the purposes of this project. In
addition, we are organizing two genetic databases. The first is an extensive
listing of molecular markers that have already been tested in non-human
primates. The second contains DNA sequence information and is divided
into four sections: autosomal DNA markers, mitochondrial DNA, and DNA
sequences from the X and Y chromosomes. A main focus of the project is
to develop an extensive range of research tools that are applicable to
a broad range of primate studies. On completion of the project, a large
selection of nuclear DNA markers will have been developed for the Catharrhini,
Platyrrhini, and Strepsirrhini and high throughput genotyping systems
will be available for several species including great apes and macaques.
These markers will allow studies such as estimation of genetic differences
in wild populations or captive groups and paternity analysis. In macaques,
a biomedically important group, methodology to differentiate donor and
recipient cells after organ transplants and methods for scoring MHC (immune
system) variability will be established. In addition, a SNP (Single Nucleotide
Polymorphism) based micro-array which allows for primate species identification
will be available. This micro-array will be useful for a range of forensic
purposes including identification of confiscated bush meat samples. The
completion of the INPRIMAT project will allow access to primate samples
and the development of cell lines as a source of DNA will decrease the
need for repeated sampling from captive populations. Furthermore, the
molecular markers generated during this project will enable rapid and
cost effective screening of zoo populations in the future.
The development of communicative behaviour in captive chimpanzees.
J. Tennant & A. W. Fletcher
Department of Biological Sciences, University College Chester, Parkgate
Road, Chester CH1 4BJ UK
Surprisingly, there is still a lack of research on communication in primates.
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) use several means to communicate and may
do so in a way that suggests an understanding of the recipient’s
ability to receive particular information at a given time. However, the
ontogeny of the communication repertoire in chimpanzees is less clear.
This study aimed to explore the stage of development of communicative
behaviours in infants, juveniles, adolescents and adult chimpanzees by
observing three categories of communicative behaviour: facial expressions,
gestures and vocalisations. It was predicted that the frequency and mode
of communicative behaviour would differ in individuals of different ages.
The study used a cross-sectional design and involved observation of 12
individuals from a group of 29 naturalistically housed chimpanzees located
at Chester Zoological Gardens, UK. Focal individuals ranged in age from
1 - 36 years. Forty hours of data on 27 communicative behaviour patterns
were obtained over a period of three months using focal subject sampling.
In general, results showed some age-related patterns but also individual
differences. Of all behaviours, facial expressions were observed more
frequently than gestures or vocalisations in adults and immatures. Of
facial expressions observed, the closed relaxed face was most common showing
a trend of increased frequency in adults, which was also seen in pout.
In contrast, play face and fear grin expressions were more common in immaturity.
There was great variation among individuals as to the types and frequency
of gestural communication observed, with hitting being the most common.
The use of gestures decreased with age. Vocalisations were infrequently
recorded in this study and no age-related patterns were apparent. The
results support those from previous studies but further longitudinal investigation
with a larger sample size is necessary to increase our understanding of
the ontogeny of communication.
Recommendations for the captive management of slender lorises (loris
tardigradus and l. lydekkerianus) based on long-term studies in the wild.
K. A. I. Nekaris & L. Bernede
Oxford Brookes University, Nocturnal Primate Research Group, U.K.
Until recently, no studies of slender lorises had been conducted in the
wild. On-going field studies have now revealed not only a new species,
but have updated the conservation status of four of the six slender loris
taxa from data deficient to Endangered or Critically Endangered. Loris
has reproduced successfully in few zoos, and its reproductive rates in
captivity are amongst the lowest for small-bodied primates. The most successful
captive-breeding programme, in Bochum, Germany, had a founding population
of only 9 individuals, the descendants of which are now all related. As
these descendants constitute the majority of lorises held in zoological
institutions, inbreeding is a threat. Rapid deforestation in its native
Sri Lanka, as well as in the Western Ghats of India, urge the establishment
of a more rigorous captive breeding programme. Paucity of key aspects
of behaviours exhibited in the wild may have hindered breeding success,
including lack of suitable social housing, nutritional problems related
to dietary deficiency, and environmental stress related to inappropriate
cage design and change in the social environment. In this paper, we present
data collected since 1996 on loris diet, social organisation, home range
size, substrate use, and inability to cope with human-induced environmental
stress, which may have important implications for how we manage these
endangered primates in captivity. In particular, we focus on the potential
implications of increasing the amount of animal prey in the diet, housing
animals in polyandrous rather than polygynous social groupings with more
opportunity for male care of offspring, and providing larger enclosures
based on movement patterns in the wild. Furthermore, we compare data collected
on substrate use in relation to activity of captive slender lorises at
the London Zoo to that of wild populations to suggest improvements to
enclosure design, in particular in regards to furniture height and substrate
size and orientation. Finally we consider the newly described species
of red slender loris, and suggest how the two taxa might be managed differently.
Funded by: PTES, Philadelphia Zoo, Columbus Zoo, American Society of Primatologists,
Primate Conservation Inc., Wenner Gren Foundation, NSF (USA), Sophie Danforth
Conservation Biology Fund and Petzl Company.
Does captivity ameliorate the established link between social status
and HPA activity that is evident in wild groups of ring tailed lemurs,
Lemur catta? Preliminary data.
C. F. McCusker2, R. W. Elwood2 , & T. E. Smith1
1 University College Chester, Chester CH1 4BJ, & 2 Queen’s University,
Belfast, BT9.
Many group living mammals exhibit an association between social status
and hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) activity. In some species HPA
activity is elevated in dominant individuals compared to subordinates
whereas in other species the inverse relationship is observed. A positive
association between dominance status and levels of cortisol, an indicator
of HPA activity and stress, has been identified in wild populations of
female ring-tailed lemurs. The current study assessed if the latter trend
was also observed in captive populations of ring-tailed lemurs. The goals
of the study were (1) provide immunological and biological validation
for an assay to quantify levels of cortisol excreted in the urine of ring-tailed
lemurs, (2) assess if stable inter- and intra-sex dominance hierarchies
exist in captive ring-tailed lemurs and (3) investigate the relationship
between HPA activity and dominance status in male and female captive ring-tailed
lemurs.
An enzyme immunoassays (EIA) was developed to quantify levels of cortisol
excreted in the urine. Immunological validation was provided by demonstrating
accuracy, precision, sensitivity and specificity. Biological assay validation
was obtained by establishing a circadian pattern of cortisol excretion.
Levels of excreted cortisol were elevated around 1000 – 1100 hrs
and declined thereafter. Focal animal behaviour data was collected for
8 weeks from seven captive ring-tailed lemurs housed in one social group.
The dominance hierarchy was calculated by quantifying the frequency and
intensity of aggressive contact and non-contact interactions. The association
between levels of excreted cortisol and social status were assessed.
In conclusion, the research developed a non-invasive tool to quantify
HPA activity in ring-tailed lemurs. The social group exhibited stable
intra- and inter-sex dominance hierarchies. Preliminary results suggest
no relationship between HPA activity and social status for this group
of captive ring-tailed lemurs. The topic warrants further investigation
since although preliminary, the results suggest the species-typical link
between physiology and social interaction patterns observed in wild ring-tailed
lemurs may be absent in captive populations. A modification of the interplay
between underlying physiology and social dynamics could have serious welfare
implications for captive animals.
Methods for measuring proximity in zoo primates – A Comparison.
L. J. Skyner, T. E. Smith, & J. Roberts.
University College Chester, Parkgate Road, Chester, CH1 4BJ, UK.
Measures of social proximity are an important tool for monitoring the
type and intensity of social relationships in primates. Scientists can
use a variety of methods when assessing spatial distances but the results
of these methods may not concur. The current study is part of a larger
research project assessing social dynamics in the lion-tailed macaque
(Macaca silenus). The aim of the presented research was to compare two
methods of monitoring social proximity in captive primates. Method one
simply quantified the number of instantaneous sample points that animals
were or were not within arms reach during focal animal observations. Method
two employed a more complex computer program, using Pythagoras’
theory to calculate distances between individuals.
Data were collected on a group of seven lion-tailed macaques at the North
of England Zoological Society for a period of 16 weeks. Method one: Focal
animal observations lasting 5 minutes were carried out at random on each
animal 6 times a week. Whether or not the focal animal was within arms
reach of any other individuals was recorded by instantaneous sampling
every 30 seconds. The proportion of sample points for which an animal
was within arms reach of another animal was computed. Method two: The
enclosure was divided into virtual, 3 dimensional spaces. The group was
scanned every 5 minutes (at the start and end of each focal animal observation)
and the location of each individual in the grid system recorded. The data
were entered and Pythagoras theory used to calculate spatial proximity.
The results indicate that the two methods of proximity measurement examined
provide a different picture on the spatial relations of individuals in
the group. The results have serious implications for how proximity data
is scored since the methods used seem to bias the results.
Third-party grooming in captive chimpanzee groups.
Y. Russell
University of Liverpool
Chimpanzees routinely make choices about which conspecifics to approach
for grooming, and which to ignore. As observed at Chester Zoo, UK (population
26), partner choice normally follows predictable patterns that are based
on long-term social bonds. Highly unusual pairings do occur, however,
which cannot be explained by regular patterns. One such pairing is between
Dylan (dominant male, b. 1987) and Kiki (socially isolated female afflicted
with cerebral palsy, b. 1996). Kiki is physically unable groom others,
and receives little grooming from other chimps. However, Kiki’s
mother is Halfpenny (b. 1975), a high-ranking and highly popular female
who often ignores Dylan’s grooming overtures. When Halfpenny comes
into oestrous Dylan is significantly more likely to groom Kiki than when
Halfpenny is not in oestrous. This normally occurs when Halfpenny is watching.
There is no correlation with other females’ swelling cycles. Other
males groomed Kiki rarely. This occurance implies an understanding of
third-party relations, and may imply that chimpanzees are capable of grooming
strategically in front of others. The captive environment provides the
opportunity for detailed analysis of social dynamics. Dylan’s behaviour
towards Kiki is compared to the rest of the group, and the importance
of audience (which conspecifics are present at the time that grooming
occurs) is considered.
The changes in behaviour during the introduction of an unfamiliar silverback
male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to a breeding group
in captivity.
H. M. Massey
Department of Social Sciences and Law, Oxford Brookes University
As the threat of extinction for many species in the wild increases, co-operative
breeding programmes are becoming more and more vital for the long term
survival of many endangered species. However, when a change in group composition
is required to maintain optimum population management, many problems may
arise. Stress, both psychological and physical, can be caused to all animals
involved which commonly results in an initial rise in aggression levels
until the group becomes integrated.
The study focused on observations of behaviour during the introduction
of an unfamiliar male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
to two resident females at Bristol Zoological Gardens. The decision to
replace the previous male was made on the grounds of boosting the national
breeding programme. Several hypotheses were formulated regarding changes
to the behaviour, of the females and the new male, as a result of the
introduction. Three weeks into the study the male was prescribed medication
to relieve aggression and anxiety and aid with group integration which
added a further interesting study area.
Bar charts and line graphs were used to display the data collected on
behaviour and location within the enclosure. The results demonstrated
that the females were aware of a new male’s presence, showing a
decline in resting behaviours and an increase in the behaviour category
‘alert’. These changes were a direct result of the aggression
exhibited by the male. The medication prescribed reduced the aggression
exhibited by the male but in turn produced a highly significant increase
in ‘resting’ and consequently a decrease in ‘locomotion’
and ‘interaction’. This behaviour change caused by the medication,
over a long period of time may prove detrimental to the physical and psychological
well-being of the male and the group as a whole. Therefore the recommendation
may be made that using medication at this level is not a long-term solution
to social group integration. Towards the end of the study mating took
place between one of the females and the male suggesting that this introduction
may develop into what can be termed a success.
The results from this study and similar research in observing behaviour
during changes to social group composition have the potential to provide
useful information for captive primate welfare and management.
Social housing in captive chimpanzees: The influence of group size
and complexity on behaviour.
M. McLennan
Chimpanzees Pan troglodytes are extremely social animals and live in multimale,
multifemale groups containing as many as 150 individuals. The dynamic
and volatile nature of their social lives in the wild poses challenges
for their care and management in captivity. Until recently the species
was considered too aggressive to be kept in large groups including multiple
males; small groups with single males were preferred for containment of
aggression. However, such arrangements may not provide captive chimpanzees
with adequate social stimulation. This study examined the effects of differential
group size and complexity on activity and behaviour as a measure of well-being
in socially housed adult chimpanzees at two UK zoos. Chimpanzees in small
(2–3 individuals) single-male groups were compared with animals
in larger (≥7 individuals) multimale housing, including one very
large colony containing five adult males. Whilst group type did not affect
overall activity level, chimpanzees in larger groups spent significantly
more time in species-typical social behaviour and less time in self-directed
and abnormal behaviour. An effect of rearing was also detected: hand-reared
animals exhibited increased levels of abnormal behaviour, though large
group size had the positive effect of lowering overall performance levels.
There was some evidence that aggression levels were elevated in the largest
multimale group, though daily number of male displays did not correlate
with number of estrous females present. Little evidence was found of close
affiliative relationships among males in multimale groups, behaviour thought
important for group cohesion in the wild. Still, this natural arrangement
provides complexity and diversity of social partners. Results indicate
that whilst the well-being of chimpanzees is compromised in very small
groups, their social requirements may be sufficiently addressed in groups
of at least seven individuals, though further study with a larger sample
is needed to confirm the generality of findings. Despite increased risk
of aggression, large and complex housing is recommended wherever possible
for welfare promotion.
Lads: A study of a bachelor group of Sulawesi macaques (Macaca nigra).
C. Reed1, Paula Walling1 and V. A. Melfi2
1 Drusillas Park, Nr. Alfriston, East Sussex, & 2 Paignton Zoo Environmental
Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon, TQ4 7EU.
The long-term survival of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra)
rests on their captive management as they are highly endangered in the
wild; due to anthropogenic factors. Captive Sulawesi macaques are usually
maintained in harems. As the number of male and female offspring produced
in captivity is evenly matched, the continuation of harem social organisations
has lead to a surplus of males. In other primate species, surplus males
have been kept together in bachelor groups.
The aim of this study was to investigate the behavioural expression of
four male Sulawesi macaques kept together at Drusillas Park. Daily activity
budgets were constructed for each male using Instantaneous scan sampling
of each male every 30mins between 0800-1630hr (N=10). The social interactions
of the males, including their proximity to each other, was noted using
instantaneous scan sampling every minute during 15min observation sessions
conducted 5 times a day (N=5).
The male macaques spent the majority of their day resting (between 31-51%
of their day), followed by feeding and moving. Though the macaques spent
a lot of their time in close proximity to one another, they spent little
time interacting socially.
This study has been accomplished through the Zoo Research Services programme,
co-ordinated by Dr Vicky Melfi, Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Devon,
UK.
Cataract surgery and treatment in an adult Western Lowland gorilla
(Gorilla gorilla gorilla).
S. Redrobe1 & M. Gage2
1Veterinary & 2Primate Departments, Bristol Zoo Gardens, Clifton,
UK
Twenty-one year old Romina, a Western Lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla
gorilla) came to Bristol Zoo Gardens as part of the European Endangered
Species conservation breeding programme. She was diagnosed with congenital
cataracts and was virtually blind in both eyes; she could not see to pick
up food nor navigate an enclosure without using her hands. She had very
limited peripheral vision because of bilateral, nuclear cataracts present
sine birth. As vision is important for gorilla social interactions it
was decided to use surgery to treat this condition, with the goal of enhancing
her welfare.
Examination under general anaesthesia at Bristol Zoo Gardens revealed
cataracts in both of Romina’s eyes. It was decided to perform cataract
surgery on one eye first and assess the success of this procedure before
attempting the second eye. After a period of settling in, remedial surgery
in one eye was performed successfully in March 2002, and in September
2002 for the second eye. Pre and postoperative treatment consisted of
oral therapy and eye drops. The primate keepers successfully administered
the eye drops four times daily after limited training of the animal. The
animal is now fully sighted in both eyes and shows more interactive behaviours
with the other gorillas since surgery.
Acknowledgements
Jenny Watts, Trish Rees at Winchester General Hospital; David Gould, Sheila
Crispin, Dan Holden at University of Bristol School of Veterinary Science;
Kellie Wyatt and all the Bristol Zoo Gardens employees involved with the
procedures, especially John Partridge, Chris Kibbey, Clare Ogbourne, Andy
Moore and the support of Bryan Carroll.
References
Dow S, Sherwin J, Gray A, Redrobe S. in press. Behavioural changes following
remedial cataract surgery in a gorilla. Proceedings of UFAW Conference.
Redrobe S. 2003. Cataract surgery in an adult female Western Lowland Gorilla
(Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Proceedings of the British Veterinary Zoological
Society Proceedings 2003, BVZS, 7 Mansfield Street, London W1M, 0AT, UK.
pp 57-58.
Lemurs pumping iron.
W. McCormick1,2, V. Melfi2 & C. Muller1
1 School of Biosciences, Cardiff University and 2 Paignton Zoo Environmental
Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon, TQ4 7EU.
The provision of diets that meet the nutritional needs of captive primates
is an essential part of preventative medicine and the promotion of good
animal welfare. In recent years the incidence of iron storage disease
(hemosiderosis) in lemurs has become a topical issue. Hemosiderosis occurs
when the circulating level of iron in the blood becomes too high and so,
it is stored in vital organs (e.g. liver) reducing their ability to function,
in some cases with fatal consequences. Currently this condition can not
be detected accurately with non-invasive methods.
A variety of explanations have been suggested to explain the incidence
of hemosiderosis in zoo housed lemurs. The diet of wild and captive lemurs
is thought to be different, in the levels of iron present (higher in captive
diets) and the levels and types of tannins present (lower in captive diets).
As such, it has been conjectured that captive lemurs will develop hemosiderosis
because their intake of iron is too high, or because the level of tannin
(which reduces the body’s absorption of iron) is too low. Despite
the interest shown in this topic, empirical data is scarce (with the exception
of a study by Wood, 2003).
This study aimed to generate empirical data that could investigate i)
the relationship between iron levels in the diet fed and the iron excreted
in faeces, and ii) whether this relationship varied with different lemur
species. Data were collected from several zoos across the UK institutions
(ring-tailed N=4, red ruffed N=3, black and white ruffed N=3, red fronted
N=3). An intake study was conducted to estimate the total amount of food
consumed daily, for 5 days. This was repeated twice (total of 3 x 5 day).
The total amount of faeces excreted was calculated for the corresponding
days. A representative sample of each food type fed and of the faeces
excreted were dried for each treatment (N=3). The iron content of the
samples was measured using atomic adsorption spectroscopy.
Acknowledgements
We are extremely grateful for the cooperation we have received, from other
researchers, university supervisors (Laura Bellingham) and zoo managers
(Audrey Perkins, Grangewood Safari; Neil Bemment, Paignton zoo; Paul Pearce-Kelly,
Zoological Society of London; Tracey Moore, Shaldon Wildlife Park &
Newquay Zoo; Sue Woodgate, Drusillas Park), throughout this study. Samples
analysed in this project were collected by, Julie Mathews (Bicton College),
Jo Cook (ZSL), Catherine Knight and Shaun Bratchley (Nottingham Trent
University), Clare Reed and Paula Walling (Drusillas Park).
Macaca ochreata brunnescens: an endemic primate of Southeast Sulawesi.
Sarah Carroll, Ruth Parkinson, Liva Hansen
Department of Social Sciences and Law, Oxford-Brookes University, Oxford.
This poster presents these three separate, yet interrelated projects
The Buton macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens) is endemic to the islands
of Buton and Muna, off mainland southeast Sulawesi (Groves 2001). The
population on Muna is already virtually extinct, so that the population
on Buton represents the last stronghold of the species. However, this
population now faces the threat of extinction due to large-scale habitat
destruction (Operation Wallacea 2003). In order to ensure that adequate
protection is afforded the species, its conservation status must be determined
(Brockleman & Ali 1987 cited in Smith 2003). To this end, data pertaining
to population size and distribution were gathered over a six-week period
in July-August 2003 in and around the Lambusango and Kakenauwe nature
reserves of central Buton. Correlations were sought between macaque abundance
and variations in habitat type. The Whitesides et al. (1988) method has
been shown to provide accurate density estimates in long-term monitoring
studies (Fashing & Cords, 2000) and was applied to line transect surveys
in the current study. The application of various protocols yielded population
density estimates of between 15.9 and 25.9 individuals/km_ in the protected
area and between 4.5 and 7 individuals/km_ in unprotected areas. Factors,
such as mean tree height, tree density and ground cover vegetation, suggest
that there is a lack of available resources in the unprotected areas,
which are impacting on macaque abundance.
Furthermore, the successful development of long-term conservation management
plans demands both knowledge of the potential local human-wildlife conflict
issues, and detailed information regarding the behavioural ecology of
the species (Pearl 1992). Nine farms were monitored for crop raiding activity
by macaques. Data were collected on various aspects of farm geography,
raid frequencies and durations, macaque behaviour during raids, and human
activity in the field in order to test whether such variables might serve
as a reliable set of predictors to assess likelihood of crop damage. Significant
correlations were found between raiding and amount of forested perimeter
while human activity was not found to be correlated to raiding. Raiding
behaviour appeared to be affected by crop patterns and to show patterns
with differing raid lengths.
In addition, activity budgets, habitat use and vigilance behaviour were
examined and the effect that age and sex have on these activities. Data
were collected via scan and focal animal sampling methods across three
study sites, representing forest at differing stages of degradation (Altmann
1974). Activity budgets and substrate use were shown to differ significantly
for groups inhabiting different forest types, though age-sex class had
little impact on behaviour. Vigilance behaviour showed a lack of variance
between groups and age-sex classes.
References
Altmann, J. (1974) ‘Observational Study of Behaviour: Sampling Methods’,
in Behaviour, 49, 227-267.
Groves, C. (2001) Primate Taxonomy, London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Operation Wallacea website (2003). Retrieved on 15 April 2003 from the
World Wide Web: http://www.opwall.com/default.htm
Pearl, M. (1992) ‘Conservation of Asian Primates: Aspects of Genetics
and Behavioral Ecology that Predict Vulnerability’, in Fieldler,
P. L. and Subodh, K. J. (eds.), Conservation Biology – The Theory
and Practice of Nature Conservation Preservation and Management, London:
Chapman and Hall.
Smith, A. (2003) ‘Aspects of the Ecology and Behaviour of the Buton
Macaque, Macaca ochreata brunnescens’ report for LIPI (Indonesian
Institute of Sciences).
Transitive inference and transitive effects in Bornean orang utans
(Pongo pygmaeus) at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park
P. McDonald1,2 & C. Caldwell2,3
1 School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, 2 Paignton Zoo Environmental
Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon, and 3 School of Psychology, Exeter
University, Exeter.
Transitive inference (TI) is a reasoning process which involves learning
the relationship between two or more stimuli. When presented with two
stimuli that have been previously presented, but never together, if the
subject shows transitive abilities, they should be able to infer the relationship
between them, e.g. if A>B and B>C, then it can be inferred that
A>C. This was investigated in two adult female Bornean orang utans
(Pongo pygmaeus) using a five term series A>B>C>D>E. Training
pairs (AB, BC, CD and DE) were presented in the form of black symbols
on white backgrounds, mounted on 2 adjacent steel boxes, into which the
subject placed one of their hands to indicate a choice. Testing sessions
took place with the subject which showed the most success during training.
During testing, pairs which had not previously been seen together were
presented. Results showed that there were trends in the direction of the
three transitive effects under investigation (choosing B over D, the “end-anchor”
effect, and the “symbolic distance” effect). However, none
of these effects reached statistical significance. The subject showed
a left side bias, consistently favouring one box over the other, which
may have masked the effects of transitive inference. Subsequent behavioural
observations of the subject’s daily activities established that
this left-side preference was apparent in many of her usual behaviours
(e.g. leading arm, reaching for food items, etc.). This may go some was
to explaining the performance in this preliminary study of transitive
reasoning, and future studies should take account of such effects in designing
novel TI stimuli.
Additional Paignton Zoo posters are displayed in the Small Primate House,
these include the following primate posters:
The effect of Norplant® on a captive troop of Hamadryas baboons.
N. Anderson
Department of Biological Sciences, Manchester University, Oxford Road,
Manchester
Due to the prolific breeding of Hamadryas baboons, measures often have
to be taken to contain numbers in captive troops. In January 1999, all
25 adult female baboons in the troop at Paignton Zoo were implanted with
Norplant®, This inhibits ovulation but does not eliminate oestrous,
perineal swellings and the subsequent associated behaviour types still
occur. A long term study of the troop since implantation aims to: assess
the effect of Norplant® on the female baboons’ cycle lengths
compared with those documented in the wild; examine the gestation and
lactating periods of females for whom the implants appears to have had
no effect; evaluate the success of the implants as a viable method of
contraception.
Cycle lengths are similar to those of free-living baboons and since implantation
total oestrus-cycle lengths have not changed, however, perineal swellings
last for more days of the cycle. To date (18 months after implantation)
there have been seven births (five surviving) resulting from conception
after implantation.
Social interactions of juveniles and female-male partners within a
troop of Hamadryas baboon Papio hamadryas, Paignton Zoo, Devon.
G. Swann1,2 and R. Jones1,3
1 Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, Devon, TQ4 7EU,
2 School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, PO Box 911, Cardiff and 3
Manchester University.
Social interactions and displacement behaviours during different maturation
stages are being studied in 17 immature hamadryas baboons housed at Paignton
Zoo. The study subjects, aged between 1 and 48 months, were randomly chosen
from six harems within the troop. They were assigned to three age categories;
black babies, infants and juveniles (Kummer 1968). Instantaneous scan
sampling and continuous focal sampling were used collect data from which
time budgets for each individual were constructed. Levels of displacement
activity and social interaction were also assessed. Data were analysed
to compare the behaviour of sex-age classes and provide some clues as
to the cause of displacement behaviour and the development of social interactions
in the hamadryas baboons. The data collected provide information on the
control of proximity by the mother to her infant and further dyadic interactions.
In addition the social behaviour of adult females has also been studied
using a similar behaviour sampling method. This study was particularly
aimed to investigate female-male interactions throughout different stages
of the oestrus cycle, highlighting the phenomenon of 'sneak matings'.
Sneak matings are considered to have occurred, when a female mates with
a male other than here harem leader. This study was accomplished using
daily recordings of the females oestrous and by investigating the triadic
interactions between male and female hamadryas baboons.
This poster presents information from two projects carried out on the
hamadryas baboon troop at Paignton Zoo, with each project written-up separately.
Nutritional and behavioural effects of the introduction of gum Arabic
into the diets of callitrichids: Callithrix pygmaea, Leontopithecus rosalia
and Callimico goeldii.
E. Newton
Tonbridge Grammar School for Girls, Deakin Leas, Tonbridge, Kent TN13
and Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, TQ4 7EU.
The diet of the wild pygmy marmoset is made-up almost exclusively from
exudates from at least 57 plant species. Whereas golden lion tamarins
and goeldi’s monkeys appear to include gum Arabic into their diet
opportunistically; their diet is largely based around fruit, insects and
small invertebrates. There have been claims that many callitrichids in
captivity benefit from the inclusion of gum Arabic in their diet, and
therefore the provision of gum Arabic was extended to include all the
callitrichids in the Paigtnon Zoo collection.
A small log was customised, by drilling several shallow holes into them,
to hold gum Arabic. The logs were filled with gum Arabic and suspended
in the outside areas of the enclosure daily for a period of five days.
Behavioural and nutritional data were collected for 5 days prior to the
introduction of the gum feeders and for 5 days with the gum feeders present.
The results from the behavioural data indicated that only the pygmy marmosets
used the gum feeders (5% of the observation period). There were differences
in the activity budget between conditions, however these were considered
to result from the change in weather; during the experimental condition
(with the gum feeder) it rained for a considerable amount of the time.
The results from the intake study (nutritional data) are still pending,
though the gum feeders should only affect the pygmy marmosets as these
were the only ones which fed from them. In conclusion, the gum feeders
were effective at providing the pygmy marmosets with a nutritional supplement
which makes up a large part of their wild diet. The behaviours required
to feed from this enrichment device were also beneficial, as it provided
the opportunity for these animals to express ‘wild-type’ behaviours
and meant the public were able to observe the animals more regularly.
Developing and evaluating an enrichment programme in an aging monkey
house.
A. Bowkett and A. Marshall
School of Biological Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF1 3TL, and
Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, Totnes Road, Paignton, TQ4 7EU.
Successful environmental enrichment should aim to decrease the frequency
of abnormal behaviour, increase the frequency of species typical behaviour
and replicate more accurately the patterns of behaviour shown in the wild.
For zoos looking to develop enrichment programmes it is important that
enrichment techniques are evaluated so that only those that are of true
benefit are incorporated. At Paignton Zoo a comprehensive enrichment programme
is being devised for residents of the aging Monkey House (built in the
1950s). Evaluation of the techniques used takes two forms: behavioural
studies conducted by student researchers and Enrichment Assessment Forms
completed mostly by the keeping staff. In the examples shown hanging log-feeders
provided for tufted capuchins Cebus apella reduced stereotypic pacing
in two individuals from 18.9% to 1.7% and from 7.2% to 1.1% (p<0.01)
and significantly increased mean object manipulation for the group from
5.3% to 42% (p<0.01). In red-faced spider monkeys Ateles paniscus hanging
cabbages significantly increased total feeding time from 7.3% to 13% (p<0.05)
but ball-feeders only increased feeding time from 7.3% to 7.5% (p>0.05).
It is hoped that the implementation of this programme will lead to more
time- and cost-effective enrichment and lead to the establishment of enrichment
into the daily husbandry routines.
Information
For more information about the meeting or enquires about presenting either a talk or a poster, please contact:
Dr Vicky Melfi E-mail: Vicky.melfi@paigntonzoo.org.uk |
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